Graphene ndi gawo limodzi la atomiki la maatomu a kaboni opangidwa mu nthiti ziwiri za hexagonal.. Anapatulidwa koyamba mkati 2004 ndipo kuyambira pamenepo wakopa akatswiri ofufuza ndi mafakitale chifukwa cha mphamvu zake zapadera, kusinthasintha, ndi conductivity.
Njira zopangira zimaphatikizapo kutulutsa kwamakina, kuyika kwa nthunzi wa mankhwala (CVD), ndi kuchepetsa mankhwala a graphene oxide. Njira iliyonse ili ndi ubwino ndi malire ake, kukhudza khalidwe, kukula, ndi mtengo wa mapepala a graphene opangidwa.
Ngakhale graphene yoyera ikuwoneka kuti ilibe poizoni, nkhawa zimabwera m'mbali mwa mapepala a graphene ndi tinthu tating'ono ta graphene oxide, zomwe zitha kubweretsa zoopsa ku thanzi ngati zitakoka mpweya. Kafukufuku wopitilira cholinga chake ndi kumveketsa bwino zomwe zimachitika paumoyo wanthawi yayitali wa kuwonetsa kwa graphene.
Inde, kupita patsogolo kwa CVD ndi njira zina zathandizira kupanga graphene pamlingo wokulirapo. Komabe, kupanga zapamwamba, Malo akuluakulu a graphene amakhalabe ovuta nthawi zonse.
Mtengo wa graphene umasiyanasiyana kutengera njira yopangira komanso mtundu wake. Pamene njira zopangira zikukula komanso kukula kumawonjezeka, mtengo ukuyembekezeka kutsika, kupangitsa kuti graphene ikhale yofikirika kuti igwiritsidwe ntchito ponseponse.
Mu mawonekedwe ake oyera, graphene si maginito. Komabe, kudzera mu doping kapena kuyandikira kwa maginito zipangizo, graphene akhoza kusonyeza khalidwe maginito, kutsegula mwayi mu spintronics ndi ntchito zina za maginito.
Airgel ndi ultralight, cholimba chopangidwa ndi netiweki ya tinthu zolimba zolumikizidwa mu matrix atatu-dimensional ndi mpweya wodzaza mipata.. Linapangidwa koyamba mu 1931 ndipo nthawi zambiri amafotokozedwa ngati "utsi wozizira" chifukwa cha mawonekedwe ake enieni.
Aerogels amadziwika ndi kutsika kwawo kochepa, mkulu porosity, zabwino kwambiri matenthedwe ndi lamayimbidwe kutchinjiriza katundu, kuwala kwa kuwala, ndi kusintha kwa hydrophobicity. Izi zimapangitsa ma aerogels kukhala oyenera kugwiritsa ntchito zosiyanasiyana.
Ma aerogels amagwiritsidwa ntchito pomanga nyumba, uinjiniya wa zamlengalenga, kuyeretsa mafuta, catalysis, zovala, zida zankhondo, ndi zamagetsi, mwa minda ina. Makhalidwe awo apadera amalola njira zatsopano m'malo omwe amafunikira zida zopepuka koma zothandiza.
Mtengo wa airgel ukhoza kusiyana kwambiri kutengera mtundu, kukula, ndi kuchuluka. Ngakhale poyamba okwera mtengo kwambiri, kupita patsogolo kwa kupanga kukuchepetsa mtengo, kupangitsa kuti airgel ikhale yopindulitsa kwambiri pazamalonda.
Kubwezeretsanso ma aerogels kumabweretsa zovuta zaukadaulo chifukwa cha zovuta zake. Komabe, kuyesetsa kupanga njira zobwezeretsanso kuti achepetse zinyalala komanso kupititsa patsogolo kukhazikika pakugwiritsa ntchito ma aerogel.
Ngakhale ma aerogels nthawi zambiri amawonedwa ngati otetezeka, kusamala ziyenera kuchitidwa pogwira ntchito kuti asapumedwe ndi fumbi, zomwe zingayambitse kupuma. Njira zoyenera zotetezera zimalimbikitsidwa mukamagwira ntchito ndi ma aerogels.